WANITA AQUARIUS
Ia mampu hidup sendiri tanpa adanya pria dalam kehidupannya, orang yang benar-benar kuat. Bukan karena ia tidak dapat menemukan cowok impiannya, tetapi jika ia memang tidak dapat menemukan cowok demikian, apa boleh buat. Apalagi karena memang dia berpikir bahwa dia mampu melakukan apapun yang mampu dilakukan seorang pria. Ia adalah seorang pemimpin, tipe orang yang benar-benar penuh percaya diri. Ia suka melakukan segalanya sendiri.Ia sangat menyukai cowok cool yang terkadang bertingkah seakan cuek terhadap dirinya, maka ia akan memiliki kesempatan untuk menunjukkan kepercayaan dirinya. Ia memiliki lebih banyak teman cowok daripada cewek, maka jika anda berpacaran dengan dia, jangan menjadi tipe pencemburu. Ia mungkin sedikit pencemburu, tapi ia sangat membenci tipe cowok pencemburu. Ia mencintai “kebebasan” baik sebelum dan sesudah menikah, kebebasan dia harus sama dan tidak boleh diikat. Ia ingin anda mempercayainya, bahkan mungkin jika ia tidak mempercayai anda. Ia suka menjadi pihak yang “benar”, maka jika anda bertengkar dengannya, biarkan dia menang, jika memang hal yang dipertengkarkan bukan masalah besar.
WANITA CANCER
ia adalah tipe pemalu, kecuali jika ia dipengaruhi zodiak lainnya. Ia bukan tipe berani atau penantang, maka jika anda menyukainya, lebih baik anda mulai duluan. Cenderung material alias segala sesuatunya diukur dengan uang hanya saja tipe ini orangnya cenderung pandai berhemat. Ia bukan tipe pencemburu, tapi cenderung posesif. Hal terbaik dari dirinya adalah ia akan mengorbankan apapun bagi orang yang dicintainya tanpa adanya batasan. Jangan tinggalkan dia pada saat dia bermasalah, ia tidak akan pernah melupakannya. Ia bukan tipe lemah, walaupun ia nampak seperti mereka, contohnya adalah pada saat anda bertengkar dengannya, ia mungkin akan menangis luar biasa. Begitu anda meninggalkannya, ia akan segera menghapus air matanya, dan akan membenahi tempat tinggalnya seperti tidak terjadi apa-apa. Ia adalah ibu yang sangat berhati-hati dan akan selalu menjaga anaknya di tiap langkahnya. Jika ia adalah istri anda, tidak akan menjadi masalah, tetapi jika ia adalah ibu mertua anda, nah.. itu baru masalah.
WANITA CAPRICORN
Wanita yang jangkung, langsing, dan tenang. Begitu marah, ia akan sangat galak. Ia akan dapat bekerja dengan lebih baik daripada beberapa pria, dan dia adalah wanita yang sangat percaya diri. Menurut pendapatnya, wanita bukanlah sekedar bunga untuk penghias rumah atau kantor dan jelas bukan gender yang lemah yang membutuhkan pertolongan saja. Ia suka mengendalikan dan menyembunyikan emosi di yang lemah. Ia tidak akan pernah mencoba untuk mengubah siapapun, dan ia akan berusaha menerima mereka apa adanya. Jika ia tidak menyukai seseorang, maka ia tidak akan akan mengkritik atau memberi komentar, ia akan sama sekali tidak memperdulikan orang itu.
Ia suka berdandan dan memakai baju dengan sempurna dan sangat rapi, maka jangan pernah memaksa dia cepat-cepat melakukan hal ini. Ia memiliki tujuan sendiri dalam hidupnya, dan tidak perduli apakah anda memiliki gelar doktor atau tidak, jika ia menanggap anda tidak cerdas, maka dia tidak akan peduli tentang anda sama sekali.,
WANITA LIBRA
Umumnya wanita Libra memiliki bentuk wajah oval. Ia memiliki kulit yang bagus dan indah, dengan bentuk tubuh indah. Ia akan menghabiskan banyak tenaga utnuk menjaga agar kulitnya tetap mulus dan indah. Ia memang pandai dalam hal itu, sehingga cenderung nampak muda dari umur yang sesungguhnya. Terkadang ia dapat berpikir lebih cepat daripada anda, tetapi ia tidak akan meninggalkan anda jauh-jauh. Ia akan berusaha membuat anda merasa bahwa anda tidak tersaingi atau dikalahkan dalam tiap permainan yang anda mainkan dengan dirinya, walaupun ia menang. Ia sangat perayu, bahkan pada saat dia tidak mengerti apa yang dia inginkan. Ia selalu memiliki alasan yang baik, bahkan ia suka untuk menentang dirinya sendiri. Ia tidak dapat menentukan mana yang benar ataupun salah bagi dirinya, karena segalanya memiliki sisi baik dan buruk. Wanita dalam zodiak lain mungkin tidak terlalu peduli dengan apa yang dipikirkan orang lain. Tetapi wanita Libra mendengar dan peduli apa yang dikatakan orang mengenai mereka, atau apa yang anda rasakan, sebanyak apa yang ia peduli mengenai perasaanya sendiri. Ia dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan baik dalam lingkungannya, maka di pekerjaanya, ia seringkali dapat menanjak dengan cepat. Ia suka bekerja dalam tim dalam melakukan banyak hal.
WANITA SCORPIO
Wanita sederhana yang selalu menunjukkan mood yang sedang dialaminya. Anda dapat dengan mudah mengetahui apakah dia sedang marah, atau sedang merayu anda. Ia menunjukkan dirinya lebih banyak melalui tingkah lakunya daripada apa yang dikatakannya, memang itulah karakter dia. Wanita Scorpio memiliki pembawaan yang misterius. Ia percaya diri, dan jauh di dalam dirinya, ia adalah orang yang bangga dengan dirinya. Ia tidak suka berpikir bahwa ia “hanyalah” wanita, sehingga ia harus terbatasi dengan beberapa aturan sosial yang selama ini diterima. Ia adalah wanita yang sesungguhnya, dan walaupun penampilannya yang nampak polos dan kekanakan, ia memiliki semangat jiwa yang bebas. Banyak cowok yang salah mengira bahwa cewek tipe ini adalah cewek yang bertipe “pengikut” yang baik. Ia mungkin sedikit tomboy tapi ia dapat mengerti anda hanya dengan memandang kedalam mata anda. Anda mungkin dapat menggunakan kata-kata manis yang dapat menjatuhkan semua wanita, tetapi tidak akan dapat berlaku bagi cewek scorpio. Ia selalu tersenyum, dan benar-benar mampu menyembunyikan perasaannya. Ia selalu menunjukkan kepada anda bahwa ia mencintai kebebasan. Jika ia memiliki kebebasan, ia tidak akan meninggalkan anda, bahkan akan semakin mencintai anda. Jika ia menginginkan sesuatu, ia akan melakukan apapun untuk mendapatkannya..
WANITA SAGITARIUS
Wanita jangkung, langsing dan anggun. Ia selalu bisa melihat dunia secara positif, maka wajahnya selalu nampak bahagia. Ia tidak akan menyerah dengan mudah. Tipe wanita penuh percaya diri yang percaya pada penampilan dan gaya sendiri.Ia tidak akan mengikuti mode, tetapi selalu berusaha tampil dengan gaya yang berada diantara sederhana dan terlalu modern. Ia adalah orang yang sangat terbuka, bahkan terkadang terlalu apa adanya. Orangnya jujur, dan tidak pernah mencoba mencair masalah untuk orang lain. Ia terkadang mengatakan hal yang tidak semestinya anda ingin dengar. Anda mungkin akan bingung mendengar kata-kata ini, apakah anda akan marah atau anda akan malah semakin menyatanginya. Ia juga memiliki jiwa yang bebas dan tidak suka tinggal di rumah. Ia suka dilindungi, tetapi bukan berarti dia mau diperintah-perintah. Ia tidak bisa menghargai pria lemah. Ia cenderung ceroboh, tetapi itu adalah sifat alaminya. Anda mungkin berpikir hal ini manis, tetapi mungkin bagi beberapa cowok tipe rapi, hal ini sangat mengesalkan. Ia sangat ramah, maka ia dapat dengan mudah membuat musuh menjadi teman akrab. Ia memiliki selera yang baik dalam hal makanan, pakaian, dan layanan-layanan kelas satu. Bahkan mereka yang tergolong miskin dalam zodiak ini, akan selalu berusaha untuk mendapat yang terbaik.
WANITA PISCES
Ia suka berada dalam dunia mimpi daripada dalam dunia nyata. Ia lemah dan sensitif untuk urusan “cinta Anda mungkin terkejut karena tahu bahwa dia menjadi pemalu ketika sedang jatuh cinta. Lebih kurangnya itulah wanita Pisces. Ia menyukai hewan-hewan kecil dan berbakat melatih hewan. Ia tidak dapat membedakan antara seorang pria yang tulus dan seorang pria yang hanya ingin datang dan pergi. Wanita Pisces cenderung cantik dan memiliki kulit yang bagus. Tangan dan kakinya kecil dan lembut. Wanita Pisces suka berbelanja sepatu layaknya mengkoleksi mereka. Ia adalah tipe wanita yang tidak terlalu rumit dan sederhana, maka, demikianlah juga untuk hidup bersama dirinya. Ia adalah wanita yang penuh percaya diri dan suka membuat siapapun yang ada disekitarnya merasa bahagia. Ia tahu bagaimana cara menyenangkan dan menghibur seorang pria. Jika sesuatu berjalan tidak benar, ia akan berusaha untuk membuat orang lain percaya bahwa hal itu semua terjadi karena orang lain, bukan karena orang yang dicintainya. Ia tidak akan mendorong pria-nya menjadi ambisius, tetapi lebih cenderung akan membuatnya merasa bahagia dengan apa yang ia miliki sekarang. Ia bahagia dengan anda karena apa adanya anda.
WANITA ARIES
Ia berpikir bahwa jalannya haruslah menjadi jalan yang indah. Ia berpikir hanya mengenai hal-hal indah, maka hanya hal itulah yang ia persiapkan, dan selalu mengatur hal-hal yang baik saja untuk dirinya, dan mengaturnya sedemikian rupa seakan dia selalu berada di jalur yang pas, sebetulnya cukup sistematis. Jika tidak ada cowok dalam hidupnya, ia akan berusaha sibuk sendiri. Cewek yang nampak biasa-biasa saja ini akan berusaha mendorong dirinya untuk mencapai tujuannya. Umumnya wajahnya akan tampak langsing dan panjang, tulang pipi yang tinggi, alis yang sedikit melengkung ke atas, lebih cenderung tinggi, bibir tipis dan ia akan memiliki campuran karakter yang cukup membingungkan. Dalam masa krisis, ia dapat menaruh pemikirannya untuk memecahkan masalah dengan lebih baik jika dibandingkan dengan zodiak lainnya. Begitu ia bermaksud melakukan sesuatu, tidak akan ada yang dapat menghentikannya. Wanita dalam zodiak ini sangat berbeda dengan wanita lainnya. Walaupun sebenarnya dia adalah tipe orang yang memiliki emosi yang campur aduk. Jika ia marah, maka anda dapat segera mengetahuinya dan ia akan tetap menampilkan wajah bete dalam tempo yang cukup lama. Anda tidak akan bisa mendapat seluruh perhatian dan waktunya, karena dia suka bekerja keras dan juga menghabiskan waktunya untuk bekerja bagi amal.
WANITA TAURUS
Wanita yang bisanya cukup langsing. Wanitya Taurus umumnya lucu dan menyenangkan, dengan struktur wajah persegi, dan tulang pipi tinggi. Matanya yang bundar memancarkan sinar kecerdasan dan keingintahuan. Anda tidak akan banyak melihat wajah bundar di kalangan kaum wanita Taurus, dan umumnya mereka memiliki garis wajah yang kuat. Ia adalah orang yang selalu berubah. Jika dia marah, ia tidak akan memperlihatkannya, dan akan memendamnya sendiri untuk waktu lama, dan akan mengingatnya satu persatu dengan tajam. Jika dia benar benar marah kepada anda, anda akan menjadi orang yang benar-benar asing untuk anda. Ia adalah orang yang sabar, tetapi selalu membutuhkan hal baru yang dapat menarik perhatiannya. Ia sangat tidak suka rapat berlama-lama. Ia mungkin saja jatuh cinta kepada anda hari ini, dan di hari berikutnya ia dapat bertindak seakan-akan tidak pernah mencintai anda sama sekali. Ia memiliki kesabaran denan apa yang ia ingin lakukan dan tidak akan pernah menyerah sampai ia berhasil mencapainya. Ia akan sangat terfokus akan pekerjaannya sampai ia memiliki alasan kuat untuk menghentikan proyek yang ditanganinya. Uang bagi wanita Taurus bukanlah faktor paling penting dalam kehidupan. Ia berpikir bahwa uang hanyalah cara untuk mendapatkan kehidupan yang layak. Ia merasa lebih puas ketika berhasil mencapai tujuannya daripada hidup ditengah kemewahan dan baju indah.
WANITA GEMINI
Cewek yang berpenampilan menarik, dengan kepandaian hebat, wanita yang sangat menarik. Ia bergerak cepat dan ia tidak dapat duduk atau berdiri diam dalam jangka waktu lama. Ia mampu melakukan banyak hal dan melakukannya secepat mungkin. Jika anda berkencan dengannya, mungkin anda akan merasa merasa sedang berkencan dengan banyak wanita pada saat yang bersamaan. Anda tidak akan dapat mengikatnya dengan kata “Cinta”, karena ia peduli dengan cinta, tetapi hal itu bukanlah faktor utama dalam kehidupannya. Anda harus dapat menyesuaikan diri denganya supaya anda dapat mengenal banyak karakter yang dimilikinya. Ia adalah wanita pemimpi yang memiliki banyak impian. Ia selalu ingin belajar mengenai sesuatu yang baru setiap saat. Walaupun dia memiliki karakter 2 in 1, ia cukup beruntung dalam hal cinta. Untuk mengejarnya, anda harus mengerahkan semua kemampuan anda. Bahkan ketika dia sudah menyukai anda dan terpesona oleh kemampuan anda, ia juga akan melihat dan menyelidiki sisi buruk anda, karena hal ini adalah sifat alaminya. Dia akan mampu membuat anda merasa menjadi cowok paling beruntung di dunia. Dia mampu membuat anda merasa bahwa ia membutuhkan semua perhatian anda, tetapi begitu dia ingin sendrian, dia mampu berdiri teguh dan tenang. Ia dapat menjadi teman baik anda dan berbicara kepadanya mengenai apapun.Wanita gemini lebih banyak menyakiti hati pria daripada wanita zodiak lainnya (mohon jangan tersinggung ^_*).
WANITA LEO
Wanita Leo umumnya tinggi. Anda akan jarang menemui wanita Leo yang pendek dan agak “tebal”. Ketika ia berjalan, ia berjalan layaknya seorang ratu, penuh percaya diri dan tidak menoleh ke mana-mana, bagaikan tidak ada orang sama sekali di sekitarnya. Ia akan berdandan dengan gayanya sendiri, dan tidak mengikuti mode. Ia percaya diri dengan apa yang dipilihnya untuk dipakainya. Jangan pernah membeli baju murah yang dijual lusinan sebagai hadiah untuknya, ia akan membencinya. Juga jangan membeli baju yang tidak mencerminkan kepribadiannya yang percaya diri. Ia menyukai baju dan asesoris yang unik dan ‘aneh’. Ia suka sekali tampil berbeda. Ia suka mengendalikan, karena hal itu adalah insting alaminya. Ia adalah wanita yang anggun, dan memiliki kharisma yang sangat kuat, maka anda harus siap menghadapi persaingan hebat. Dia adalah orang yang sangat bangga kepada diri sendiri, maka jangan pernah menantang kepercayaan dirinya. Mungkin saja ia akan marah dan bertingkah layaknya badai, dan kemudian layaknya anak kucing yang lucu dan tidak bersalah, tapi jangan pernah jatuh kedalam perangkapnya. Ia selalu mengingat semuanya, dan suka untuk mengingat-ingat kenangan manis, jadi jika anda menemukan album foto penuh dengan foto mantan, atau tumpukan surat cintanya yang membuat anda serasa ingin muntah, jangan anggap itu semua terlalu serius.
WANITA VIRGO
Penampilannya mirip dengan wanita Leo, wanita langsing yang mampu bergerak dengan penuh percaya diri dan kebanggaan. Wajahnya memiliki struktur layaknya telur, dengan dahi yang tinggi dan bundar. Ia suka memandang langsung ke arah kita, seperti sedang menyelidiki sesuatu. Ia bukan tipe yang suka berpura-pura dan selalu mengatakan apa yang ia pikirkan secara terbuka. Anda akan melihat wanita dalam zodiak ini berjalan cepat. Ia akan selalu berusaha mencoba kemampuan terbaiknya untuk menjadi sempurnya, tampak dan merasa sempurna, walaupun sebenarnya kesempurnaan macam itu tidak pernah ada. Ia sangat berhati-hati dalam memilih pakaian. Ia cerdas dan mudah putus asa menghadapi rintangan. Ia suka cowok cerdas yang mampu mengimbanginya, jadi jika anda adalah tipe cowok kaya yang agak bego, lebih baik segera lupakan dia. Ia bukan orang yang posesif atau cemburuan, karena ia mengharapkan penghormatan dari orang yang dikasihinya. Ia tidak menyukai hubungan yang sifatnya sementara. Jika ia menemukan cowok impiannya, ia tidak akan pernah meninggalkannya. Jika ia tidak menyukai anda, maka ia akan berusaha menjaga jarak. Dia berusaha berdisiplin untuk berusaha bertindak wajar dan layak. Ia tidak suka dan tidak akan tahan bahasa kotor, dan sumpah serapah
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Kamis, 31 Maret 2011
How to Manage Multiple Projects
How to Manage Multiple Projects
X
scrapsoflife
Jennifer Walker
Growing up, Jennifer consider almost every surface a creative canvas. Anything from the Doonesbury comic books she was given at age 4 to a spare telephone that found itself painted when she was 12. A music stand was an ersatz easel and after highschool she moved onto edible canvases of cakes and cookies. After starting her own webcomic in 2007, Jennifer spends a lot of her time in front of the computer in 'the Abyss' (craft room/studio/office) trying to balance life and fun and creativity. She recently launched a second comic, "Where the Geeks Are," for SoulGeek Webcomics and has published her first book, Party in the Handbasket, Random Acts... Year 1.
Website
http://www.randomactscomics.com
By Jennifer Walker, eHow Contributor
How to Manage Multiple Projectsthumbnail Woman multi-tasking
Time management is crucial when you have more than one task on your to-do list--and without it--the amount of work you've signed yourself up for may feel overwhelming. The following are ways to keep your sanity--while getting everything done in a timely manner.
Difficulty:
Moderately Challenging
Instructions
1.
* 1
Prioritize your projects. Order of importance can be determined by deadlines, the insistence of others (also known as the squeaky wheel syndrome) or the amount of work it will take to complete. Bigger projects, even those with far-out deadlines, that are going to take more time should be started earlier to ensure everything gets done--especially when downtime is needed for drying or curing.
* 2
Combine similar tasks when possible. Anything that you can combine--cutting fabrics for different projects, converting photos or images in the same program, framing to maximize efficiency--will help you and save you the trouble of having to pull out certain tools again and again.
* 3
Clean as you go. Sure, when you're in the throes of a complex project it's easy to just to put down one tool and pick up another or set your scraps and waste to the side. But when you finish and look up from your desk you've got a mountain of things that have to be put away that will take you twice as long to sort and organize than if you'd taken care of each castoff in its own turn.
* 4
Take frequent breaks, but never if you're on a roll. Looking up from a project now and then has the benefit of clearing your head and taking notice of the area around you. Frequently, we can get so focused on one little section that we forget how it fits in with the whole; taking a break gives some much-needed perspective. But if you're really in the groove, don't force a break and interrupt your thought process; just wait for the next logical pause point and take a stretch break.
* 5
Switch between projects if one becomes frustrating. Just like taking a break, switching to a project that uses a different skill set can get your mind off things long enough for your subconscious to puzzle things out. A flash of inspiration often comes when you're not thinking about a problem--at least it does for me.
* 6
Make lists or charts, breaking up larger projects into workable segments. The overall goal is to complete each project by the deadline, but setting intermediate goals that can be checked off as you progress will give you that feel-good sense of accomplishment. Also, by dividing each project into smaller components you make a gargantuan task seem smaller.
* 7
Structure your time wisely. If you want to get a lot done, you have to be realistic about how much time you have. After all, there are only 24 hours in a day. Get out your organizer of choice and really look at how you spend your time--then make some changes in order to complete your projects.
* 8
Outsource anything that can easily be done by someone else. Make-or-buy decisions are a mainstay in many fields and can take the pressure off your shoulders when your schedule is overfull. Sure, you can do everything yourself, but if you can outsource certain items without sacrificing quality--you will have more time to invest in the things that cannot be done by anyone else.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* 2011MIECF: 31 Mar - 2 Aprwww.macaomiecf.com
Reach into the heart of the Green Markets in South China
* Online Task Tracking Toolwww.web-based-software.com
Our directory lists hundreds of web apps for project & task tracking.
* Access Water Knowledgewww.WEFInternational.org
Download free World Water articles on global wastewater issues.
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Messy workspaces make for messy deadlines. Always tidy up when you finish for a day, so you can start fresh the next.
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Read more: How to Manage Multiple Projects | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4713552_manage-multiple-projects.html#ixzz1IFYZUCww
X
scrapsoflife
Jennifer Walker
Growing up, Jennifer consider almost every surface a creative canvas. Anything from the Doonesbury comic books she was given at age 4 to a spare telephone that found itself painted when she was 12. A music stand was an ersatz easel and after highschool she moved onto edible canvases of cakes and cookies. After starting her own webcomic in 2007, Jennifer spends a lot of her time in front of the computer in 'the Abyss' (craft room/studio/office) trying to balance life and fun and creativity. She recently launched a second comic, "Where the Geeks Are," for SoulGeek Webcomics and has published her first book, Party in the Handbasket, Random Acts... Year 1.
Website
http://www.randomactscomics.com
By Jennifer Walker, eHow Contributor
How to Manage Multiple Projectsthumbnail Woman multi-tasking
Time management is crucial when you have more than one task on your to-do list--and without it--the amount of work you've signed yourself up for may feel overwhelming. The following are ways to keep your sanity--while getting everything done in a timely manner.
Difficulty:
Moderately Challenging
Instructions
1.
* 1
Prioritize your projects. Order of importance can be determined by deadlines, the insistence of others (also known as the squeaky wheel syndrome) or the amount of work it will take to complete. Bigger projects, even those with far-out deadlines, that are going to take more time should be started earlier to ensure everything gets done--especially when downtime is needed for drying or curing.
* 2
Combine similar tasks when possible. Anything that you can combine--cutting fabrics for different projects, converting photos or images in the same program, framing to maximize efficiency--will help you and save you the trouble of having to pull out certain tools again and again.
* 3
Clean as you go. Sure, when you're in the throes of a complex project it's easy to just to put down one tool and pick up another or set your scraps and waste to the side. But when you finish and look up from your desk you've got a mountain of things that have to be put away that will take you twice as long to sort and organize than if you'd taken care of each castoff in its own turn.
* 4
Take frequent breaks, but never if you're on a roll. Looking up from a project now and then has the benefit of clearing your head and taking notice of the area around you. Frequently, we can get so focused on one little section that we forget how it fits in with the whole; taking a break gives some much-needed perspective. But if you're really in the groove, don't force a break and interrupt your thought process; just wait for the next logical pause point and take a stretch break.
* 5
Switch between projects if one becomes frustrating. Just like taking a break, switching to a project that uses a different skill set can get your mind off things long enough for your subconscious to puzzle things out. A flash of inspiration often comes when you're not thinking about a problem--at least it does for me.
* 6
Make lists or charts, breaking up larger projects into workable segments. The overall goal is to complete each project by the deadline, but setting intermediate goals that can be checked off as you progress will give you that feel-good sense of accomplishment. Also, by dividing each project into smaller components you make a gargantuan task seem smaller.
* 7
Structure your time wisely. If you want to get a lot done, you have to be realistic about how much time you have. After all, there are only 24 hours in a day. Get out your organizer of choice and really look at how you spend your time--then make some changes in order to complete your projects.
* 8
Outsource anything that can easily be done by someone else. Make-or-buy decisions are a mainstay in many fields and can take the pressure off your shoulders when your schedule is overfull. Sure, you can do everything yourself, but if you can outsource certain items without sacrificing quality--you will have more time to invest in the things that cannot be done by anyone else.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* 2011MIECF: 31 Mar - 2 Aprwww.macaomiecf.com
Reach into the heart of the Green Markets in South China
* Online Task Tracking Toolwww.web-based-software.com
Our directory lists hundreds of web apps for project & task tracking.
* Access Water Knowledgewww.WEFInternational.org
Download free World Water articles on global wastewater issues.
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Tips & Warnings
*
Messy workspaces make for messy deadlines. Always tidy up when you finish for a day, so you can start fresh the next.
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How to Landscape on a Small Budget
How to Landscape on a Small Budget
X
ds_51f2843c-5697-43cc-8598-7bb132d26921
Jennifer Lee
Jennifer Lee is a native Virginian who started writing professionally in 1991. She has written for the "Radford News Journal" and "Albemarle Kids." Her work has also appeared in various online publications. Lee earned a Bachelor of Science in psychology, and a Bachelor of Arts in English from Virginia Tech.
By Jennifer Lee, eHow Contributor
How to Landscape on a Small Budgetthumbnail Landscape on a Small Budget
Plan carefully to make the most of your landscape dollars. Sketch out your yard and include the contours of your home along with any patios or decks, walkways, driveways, paths, flower beds and retaining walls. Add features you want, and then split the project into phases so you can complete a little at a time to minimize the amount of money you need to spend all at once. Consider setting up a consultation with a landscape architect and having her look over your sketch. You can get advice for much less than you would spend if you had the plans drawn up from scratch.
Difficulty:
Moderate
Instructions
1.
* 1
Use gravel, concrete pavers or poured concrete for the most inexpensive paths and walkways. If using gravel, select small pieces of angular gravel (labeled "1/4-inch minus") for the least amount of slippage underfoot. Avoid pea gravel or other smooth stones. Attack weeds as you see them pop up.
* 2
Furnish existing decks and patios with inexpensive seating and occasional tables. Check big box stores, thrift stores and yard sales. Deals can often be found at summer's end. Dress up the area with a thrifty outdoor rug, some plants in containers, and perhaps some garden-style wall art. Add tiki torches, outdoor lamps, post lights or candle lanterns for evening ambiance.
* 3
Add a do-it-yourself water feature. Liners, pumps and fountains are available at home improvement stores and can easily be added to your yard, deck or patio. Create a retaining wall wherever you need one using textured concrete blocks made for this purpose. A trellis or arbor is another easy addition and can be enchanting and create privacy.
* 4
Sharpen lawn mower blades approximately every six weeks during summer months so the lawn stays healthy. Use thin layers of chopped-up grass clippings and some slow-release nitrogen to fertilize the lawn and help keep it green. Consider planting fescue seed, which is drought-resistant and doesn't need a lot of fertilizer to flourish.
* 5
Outline new flower beds with a garden hose to achieve contemporary curved shapes, and then install edging to define the beds and keep the lawn from encroaching. Enrich the soil properly with compost and other add-ins according to the advice of nursery personnel or the cooperative extension office in your area. Mulch with organic materials such as pine needles or shredded leaves, and check with your city to see if it will provide free mulch. You can apply these over layers of newspaper for extra weed control.
* 6
Invest most of your plants budget in trees, shrubs and flowers native to your area since these are most likely to flourish. Plant perennials and put in fewer than you think you need. You can divide them next year and fill in the beds then. Start plants indoors from seed, purchase plants and trees in late summer when they are on sale, and invest in the biggest trees you can afford since they grow slowly and larger ones have much more impact on a landscape.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* EagleLawn Synthetic turfwww.eagleturf.us
World's favourite artificial lawns Turf lawns, landscape, residential
* Garden Seeds WorldWidewww.eGardenSeed.com
Grow Beautiful Vegetables and Herbs Now Flatrate Woldwide Shipping!
* Korea stone crusherswww.syplant.co.kr
Jaw, cone, screen & impact crusher 50-600tph crushing plant
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Tips & Warnings
*
Use a rain barrel to collect water for your plants.
Resources
* U.S. Department of Agriculture: How To Prune Trees
* Print
* Email
* Share
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View all 26 Comments
Comments
* Print
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*
How to Landscape On a Budget
*
How to Budget for a Small Business
*
How to Plan a Small Wedding Reception On a Budget
*
How to Design a New Landscape
*
How to Care for Your Trees On a Budget
*
How to Create a Landscape Plan
*
How to Open a Landscaping Business
*
Landscape Lighting Ideas
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Read more: How to Landscape on a Small Budget | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7591368_landscape-small-budget.html#ixzz1IFXybpQm
X
ds_51f2843c-5697-43cc-8598-7bb132d26921
Jennifer Lee
Jennifer Lee is a native Virginian who started writing professionally in 1991. She has written for the "Radford News Journal" and "Albemarle Kids." Her work has also appeared in various online publications. Lee earned a Bachelor of Science in psychology, and a Bachelor of Arts in English from Virginia Tech.
By Jennifer Lee, eHow Contributor
How to Landscape on a Small Budgetthumbnail Landscape on a Small Budget
Plan carefully to make the most of your landscape dollars. Sketch out your yard and include the contours of your home along with any patios or decks, walkways, driveways, paths, flower beds and retaining walls. Add features you want, and then split the project into phases so you can complete a little at a time to minimize the amount of money you need to spend all at once. Consider setting up a consultation with a landscape architect and having her look over your sketch. You can get advice for much less than you would spend if you had the plans drawn up from scratch.
Difficulty:
Moderate
Instructions
1.
* 1
Use gravel, concrete pavers or poured concrete for the most inexpensive paths and walkways. If using gravel, select small pieces of angular gravel (labeled "1/4-inch minus") for the least amount of slippage underfoot. Avoid pea gravel or other smooth stones. Attack weeds as you see them pop up.
* 2
Furnish existing decks and patios with inexpensive seating and occasional tables. Check big box stores, thrift stores and yard sales. Deals can often be found at summer's end. Dress up the area with a thrifty outdoor rug, some plants in containers, and perhaps some garden-style wall art. Add tiki torches, outdoor lamps, post lights or candle lanterns for evening ambiance.
* 3
Add a do-it-yourself water feature. Liners, pumps and fountains are available at home improvement stores and can easily be added to your yard, deck or patio. Create a retaining wall wherever you need one using textured concrete blocks made for this purpose. A trellis or arbor is another easy addition and can be enchanting and create privacy.
* 4
Sharpen lawn mower blades approximately every six weeks during summer months so the lawn stays healthy. Use thin layers of chopped-up grass clippings and some slow-release nitrogen to fertilize the lawn and help keep it green. Consider planting fescue seed, which is drought-resistant and doesn't need a lot of fertilizer to flourish.
* 5
Outline new flower beds with a garden hose to achieve contemporary curved shapes, and then install edging to define the beds and keep the lawn from encroaching. Enrich the soil properly with compost and other add-ins according to the advice of nursery personnel or the cooperative extension office in your area. Mulch with organic materials such as pine needles or shredded leaves, and check with your city to see if it will provide free mulch. You can apply these over layers of newspaper for extra weed control.
* 6
Invest most of your plants budget in trees, shrubs and flowers native to your area since these are most likely to flourish. Plant perennials and put in fewer than you think you need. You can divide them next year and fill in the beds then. Start plants indoors from seed, purchase plants and trees in late summer when they are on sale, and invest in the biggest trees you can afford since they grow slowly and larger ones have much more impact on a landscape.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* EagleLawn Synthetic turfwww.eagleturf.us
World's favourite artificial lawns Turf lawns, landscape, residential
* Garden Seeds WorldWidewww.eGardenSeed.com
Grow Beautiful Vegetables and Herbs Now Flatrate Woldwide Shipping!
* Korea stone crusherswww.syplant.co.kr
Jaw, cone, screen & impact crusher 50-600tph crushing plant
Ads by Google
Tips & Warnings
*
Use a rain barrel to collect water for your plants.
Resources
* U.S. Department of Agriculture: How To Prune Trees
* Share
Read Next Article
View all 26 Comments
Comments
* Share
Related Ads
* Skin
* Eczema Skin Condition
* Vitamins for Skin
* Beautiful Skin Face
* 123 My Skin
* Dull Looking Skin
Related Articles & Videos
*
Landscaping Ideas for Small Budgets
*
Low-Maintenance Landscaping Ideas for Small Budgets
*
How to Landscape On a Budget
*
How to Budget for a Small Business
*
How to Plan a Small Wedding Reception On a Budget
*
How to Design a New Landscape
*
How to Care for Your Trees On a Budget
*
How to Create a Landscape Plan
*
How to Open a Landscaping Business
*
Landscape Lighting Ideas
More
Click here to find out more!
Helpful?
Yes
No
* Thanks for helping us to
make eHow better for everyone.
* Why Not?
Too general / no useful information Information is out of date Information is inaccurate Article needs more photos Article is offensive Wasn't what I was looking for
Read more: How to Landscape on a Small Budget | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7591368_landscape-small-budget.html#ixzz1IFXybpQm
How to Prevent a Fire in a Home
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Cherie Brunetti
Cherie Brunetti has been writing and editing since 2005. She loves writing about psychology, child development, and home business. She writes for "Vertical Measures" and has had feature articles published with "Us Moms Today" and "You & Me: America's Medical Magazine". Brunetti holds a Master of Science in counseling psychology from Frostburg State University in Maryland.
By Cherie Brunetti, eHow Contributor
How to Prevent a Fire in a Homethumbnail Practice fire safety at home.
House fires can be devastating. About 5,000 people a year die in fires, and 80 percent of these deaths occur in house fires. Fires kill more people per year in the United States than all other natural disasters put together. A fire can spread quickly and become deadly within 2 minutes; an entire house can be engulfed in flames in less than 5 minutes. Most fires are avoidable and could have been prevented. Below are some tips for preventing a fire in your own home.
Difficulty:
Moderately Easy
Instructions
things you'll need:
* Fire extinguishers Smoke detectors
1.
* 1
Dispose of all cigarette butts and used matches properly. Never let them out where a baby or child can reach them. If you smoke, get into the habit of properly disposing of your butts immediately. Keep ashtrays clean and safe by promptly disposing of the ashes.
* 2
Avoid smoking in bed. Do not permit guests to smoke in bed. If you tend to fall asleep on the couch while watching television, do not smoke while lying on the couch.
* 3
Keep all lighters and matches safely out of reach of babies and children.
* 4
Do not allow anyone near your fireplace, space heater or candles if they are wearing loose, draping clothing that could easily catch fire.
* 5
Keep candles where they will not accidentally be knocked over. Extinguish candles when your are finished with them and never leave a candle unattended. Take special care with candles if you have children or pets running around in your home.
* 6
Have your furnace inspected on a yearly basis.
* 7
Do not overload electrical circuits and check electrical appliances regularly for loose connections or damaged cords.
* 8
Do not use leave space heaters unsupervised if you have children or pets. Make sure that your heater automatically turns off if it falls over.
* 9
Have fire extinguishers in the high risk areas of your home. This would include the kitchen, near the furnace and fireplace, and the garage. Examine the extinguishers yearly for proper pressure and expiration date.
* 10
Install smoke detectors. Be sure that there is a detector on every level of the house, even the basement and attic. Also, be sure that there is a smoke detector near every bedroom. Check your smoke detectors monthly and replace the batteries at least once a year.
* 11
Install a rope ladder or fire escape in selected windows upstairs. Make sure that all family members know how to use the ladder and practice doing so.
* 12
Come up with an emergency escape plan. Discuss it with the family and have everyone practice the escape routes. Have a designated meeting area outside of the home.
* Liver Cancer Diagnosis?CancerCenter.com/CareThatNeverQuits
Chat w/ an oncology info expert about Liver Cancer Treatment.
* NEBOSH Training Indonesiawww.handaltraining.com
Valuable & International recognised Excellent Price & Group Discount
* Flammable Safety Cabinetswww.empteezy.asia
To store yours recipients safely FM Approved - Meets OSHA & NFPA
* NEBOSH Construction Cert.www.SHEilds.me
Flexible accredited online training Only 2,500 AED for a limited time
Ads by Google
Tips & Warnings
*
In an emergency, baking soda can be used to put out a small fire. Smoke rises, so mount your smoke alarms high on the wall or on the ceiling. Do not install alarms or detectors near windows, ducts or doors.
*
If the fire is not contained in a small area such as the oven or a wastebasket, do not try to extinguish the fire. Concentrate on getting yourself and family safely out of the house. If your smoke alarms are more than 10 years old, purchase new ones.
Resources
* What to do During a Fire
* Smoke Detector Reviews
* Print
* Email
* Share
Read Next Article
Read more: How to Prevent a Fire in a Home | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4575878_prevent-fire-home.html#ixzz1IFXSxpHx
ds_cherieb9063
Cherie Brunetti
Cherie Brunetti has been writing and editing since 2005. She loves writing about psychology, child development, and home business. She writes for "Vertical Measures" and has had feature articles published with "Us Moms Today" and "You & Me: America's Medical Magazine". Brunetti holds a Master of Science in counseling psychology from Frostburg State University in Maryland.
By Cherie Brunetti, eHow Contributor
How to Prevent a Fire in a Homethumbnail Practice fire safety at home.
House fires can be devastating. About 5,000 people a year die in fires, and 80 percent of these deaths occur in house fires. Fires kill more people per year in the United States than all other natural disasters put together. A fire can spread quickly and become deadly within 2 minutes; an entire house can be engulfed in flames in less than 5 minutes. Most fires are avoidable and could have been prevented. Below are some tips for preventing a fire in your own home.
Difficulty:
Moderately Easy
Instructions
things you'll need:
* Fire extinguishers Smoke detectors
1.
* 1
Dispose of all cigarette butts and used matches properly. Never let them out where a baby or child can reach them. If you smoke, get into the habit of properly disposing of your butts immediately. Keep ashtrays clean and safe by promptly disposing of the ashes.
* 2
Avoid smoking in bed. Do not permit guests to smoke in bed. If you tend to fall asleep on the couch while watching television, do not smoke while lying on the couch.
* 3
Keep all lighters and matches safely out of reach of babies and children.
* 4
Do not allow anyone near your fireplace, space heater or candles if they are wearing loose, draping clothing that could easily catch fire.
* 5
Keep candles where they will not accidentally be knocked over. Extinguish candles when your are finished with them and never leave a candle unattended. Take special care with candles if you have children or pets running around in your home.
* 6
Have your furnace inspected on a yearly basis.
* 7
Do not overload electrical circuits and check electrical appliances regularly for loose connections or damaged cords.
* 8
Do not use leave space heaters unsupervised if you have children or pets. Make sure that your heater automatically turns off if it falls over.
* 9
Have fire extinguishers in the high risk areas of your home. This would include the kitchen, near the furnace and fireplace, and the garage. Examine the extinguishers yearly for proper pressure and expiration date.
* 10
Install smoke detectors. Be sure that there is a detector on every level of the house, even the basement and attic. Also, be sure that there is a smoke detector near every bedroom. Check your smoke detectors monthly and replace the batteries at least once a year.
* 11
Install a rope ladder or fire escape in selected windows upstairs. Make sure that all family members know how to use the ladder and practice doing so.
* 12
Come up with an emergency escape plan. Discuss it with the family and have everyone practice the escape routes. Have a designated meeting area outside of the home.
* Liver Cancer Diagnosis?CancerCenter.com/CareThatNeverQuits
Chat w/ an oncology info expert about Liver Cancer Treatment.
* NEBOSH Training Indonesiawww.handaltraining.com
Valuable & International recognised Excellent Price & Group Discount
* Flammable Safety Cabinetswww.empteezy.asia
To store yours recipients safely FM Approved - Meets OSHA & NFPA
* NEBOSH Construction Cert.www.SHEilds.me
Flexible accredited online training Only 2,500 AED for a limited time
Ads by Google
Tips & Warnings
*
In an emergency, baking soda can be used to put out a small fire. Smoke rises, so mount your smoke alarms high on the wall or on the ceiling. Do not install alarms or detectors near windows, ducts or doors.
*
If the fire is not contained in a small area such as the oven or a wastebasket, do not try to extinguish the fire. Concentrate on getting yourself and family safely out of the house. If your smoke alarms are more than 10 years old, purchase new ones.
Resources
* What to do During a Fire
* Smoke Detector Reviews
* Share
Read Next Article
Read more: How to Prevent a Fire in a Home | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4575878_prevent-fire-home.html#ixzz1IFXSxpHx
About Ski
About Ski Wear
X
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Naomi Judd
Naomi Judd, CIG, has been a writer for six years and been published in Tidal Echoes, Centripetal, The Capital City Weekly and Northwest.com. She has a self-designed Bachelor of Arts degree in adventure writing from Plymouth State University and is currently earning an Master of Fine Arts in creative writing from University of Southern Maine.
By Naomi Judd, eHow Contributor
About Ski Wearthumbnail About Ski Wear
The history and diversity of ski wear is perhaps as colorful and spirited as the people who have careened down mountains wearing it, whether they be adorned in neon pink and green nylon or stealthy black GORE-TEX. Here is some background and history about ski wear.
1.
History (1900s-1970s)
How to Buy Ski Apparel
X
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Charlie Gaston
Charlie Gaston has written numerous instructional articles on topics ranging from business to communications and estate planning. Gaston holds a bachelor's degree in international business and a master's degree in communications. She is fluent in Spanish and has extensive travel experience.
By Charlie Gaston, eHow Contributor
How to Buy Ski Apparelthumbnail Ian Britton
Getting away to the snow capped mountains of the Alps or Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park is a great family adventure that requires little more than equipment and basic training. If you do not have experience skiing, don't worry. You and your family can still make the trip. Most ski resorts offer basic classes and free instruction for adults and children. You only have to worry about getting your equipment on the day or before. Here's what you need to know about purchasing ski apparel.
Difficulty:
Moderate
Instructions
1.
* 1
Start with a list of place to shop online. For example, consider a well known store like Sun and Ski Sports. With daily Internet sales and clearance items, you can purchase all your apparel needs in one place, including snow skis, ski clothing, ski boots, snow ski bindings, ski poles, snow ski helmets, Apres/After ski boots, ski goggles, ski bags, boot bags, and foot warmers. For questions contact the company at 1-866-786-3869. Alternately, consider a vendor like Troy Ski Apparel. Known for its large selection of Columbia ski apparel, Troy's has an extensive inventory of ski apparel that includes ski and snowboard jackets, pants, bibs, gloves, goggles, socks, long johns, and sunglasses. For more information, call Troy Ski Apparel at 1-806-748-7400.
* 2
Purchase an appropriate base layer and mid-layer. A good base layer will be a synthetic material that wicks away moisture, transferring it away your skin and on to the surrounding mid-layer. This will keep you warm and ward off illness. Supplement with a jacket to ward off moisture and provide insulation against cold temperatures.
* 3
Purchase a ski helmet based upon your own hat size.
* 4
Look for durability, fit, waterproof protection, breathability, and appropriateness of material. This is especially important when purchasing a ski jacket. The further away from the ground that you are, the greater the protection you will need. Consider a hard shell jacket for the strongest barrier to cold wind if you are going to be in high altitude.
* 5
Test out goggles before purchasing. Test for visibility, fit and lens features. Features will vary by product and vendor, but these generally include a padded interior to hold the goggles away from your face. They should have a flexible exterior, and they should have vents to protect against fogging.
* 6
Test glove options. Decide if you prefer mittens or gloves. Check out the insulation provided as well as the durability of the material. Test while handling equipment to decide if short or long gloves are best for you. Attempt to layer if possible with added insulation pads.
* 7
Fit snow sports pants to size. Most snow sports pants are made of a combination of synthetic and cotton materials to protect the body against moisture, sweat and cold winds. Consider extra padding and stronger stitching for added protection and durability.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* Big and Tall sizes to 14xwww.bigmen.com
dress, work, hunting and skiclothes Waists 32-88. Shoes-boots 6-20 6e.
* $10 Ski Rental Packagewww.banffbudgetrentals.com
The cheapest ski rental in Banff Reserve online now!
* Winter Park Ski Rentalwww.winterparkskirental.com
2 for 1 ski and snowboard rentals Pay only for the days used!
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Tips & Warnings
*
Always compare prices and review the manufacturer's refund policy.
*
This article is intended to function only as a guide to purchasing ski apparel.
Resources
* Where To Go Skiing
* Troy Ski Apparrel
* Print
* Email
* Share
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How to Buy Women's Ski Apparel
*
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*
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*
How to Buy Kids Ski Apparel
*
Places in the U.S. That Resell Expensive Ski Wear
*
How to Buy a Water Ski Boat
*
Picking Ski Poles
*
Picking Ski Bindings
*
Ski Rental & Buying Tips
*
How to Snow Ski Backwards
More
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Read more: How to Buy Ski Apparel | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4674227_buy-ski-apparel.html#ixzz1IFWlhVMP
*
The evolution of ski wear has brought about several new technologies over the last century. When downhill skiing took off as a recreational sport in the early 1900s, women wore wool skirts and men wore riding breeches. In the 40s and 50s, it was common for people to wear garments made from wool or even tweed coats and hats tailored specifically for skiing. In the 1950s, with the onset of downhill ski races, the mountains attracted more people. During the 50s and 60s, skiers wore sweaters and wool coats and women wore thin leggings. Patterns included plaid, argyle and Icelandic prints. Hounds tooth was a popular print in the 70s, as were nylon suits and puffy jackets.
History (1980s-present)
*
Through the 80s and 90s, the mountains saw a lot of neon and full-piece suits, which soon went almost entirely out of style. A major change during these years was the introduction of GORE-TEX. In some western states it was not uncommon to see a man skiing in jeans and a cowboy hat in the early spring. Other water-resistant fabrics came into production in the 90s, and skiers started to grasp the idea of helmets, as well as layering with such things as fleece and synthetics like polypro. Ski wear designs continue to advance into better performing and modern styles.
Function
*
Ski wear is not only designed for peak performance but seemingly peak style as well. Ski wear such as waterproof/breathable shell jackets, which have a built-in powder skirt, pit zips, hood and sealed zippers, are what skiers typically wear over insulating and wicking layers. Materials such as GORE-TEX, Hy-vent and H2No are all commonly used on the slopes.
An Ideal Outfit
*
A general ski outfit consists of a specialized ski jacket and pants, wicking base layers, insulating mid layers for top and bottom, long ski socks, gloves or mitts and a hat and helmet with ski goggles. Brands such as Black Diamond, Mountain Hardwear, The North Face, Arc'Teryx and Spyder and Marmot, among others, continue to pave the way in ski wear design for the 21st century.
Features
*
The Arc'Teryx Titan snow sports jacket is made with a 2-layer GORE-TEX Pro Shell and laminated Primaloft Sport insulation. It models what the top designs of today intend to incorporate in ski jacket design with its construction, form, durability and protective qualities. Its hood fits a helmet, has hand pockets, pit zips, built-in neck gaiter and water-tight zippers. This jacket also exemplifies the top-of-the-line ski jacket of today in that it has a built in Recco reflector.
Potential
*
Built-in sensors and beacon technology such as the Recco reflector, combined with complete water-repellent and breathable fabrics, have brought the ski world farther into the back country than ever before. The Recco reflector is part of an avalanche rescue system. It weighs less than 4 grams and is permanently affixed to many ski jackets, requiring no maintenance. This raises the cost of a jacket but increases safety. Brands such as Sessions, Quicksilver, Arc'Teryx, The North Face and Vans Snow are some of the brands that now incorporate such technology into their ski wear.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* $10 Ski Rental Packagewww.banffbudgetrentals.com
The cheapest ski rental in Banff Reserve online now!
* winter ski dealswww.niseko-hirafu.com/ski
Great Niseko Ski Holiday Package. Get Fast Online Quote Now & Save.
* New, Affordable Beanieswww.zainihats.com/hats.html
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Resources
* Recco Reflector
* Spyder Ski Wear
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* Share
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*
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*
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*
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*
About Ski Helmets
*
Ski Clothing Tips
*
What Are Skis Made Of?
*
Choosing Clothes for Skiing
*
What Are Some Different Kinds of Skis?
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Naomi Judd
Naomi Judd, CIG, has been a writer for six years and been published in Tidal Echoes, Centripetal, The Capital City Weekly and Northwest.com. She has a self-designed Bachelor of Arts degree in adventure writing from Plymouth State University and is currently earning an Master of Fine Arts in creative writing from University of Southern Maine.
By Naomi Judd, eHow Contributor
About Ski Wearthumbnail About Ski Wear
The history and diversity of ski wear is perhaps as colorful and spirited as the people who have careened down mountains wearing it, whether they be adorned in neon pink and green nylon or stealthy black GORE-TEX. Here is some background and history about ski wear.
1.
History (1900s-1970s)
*
The evolution of ski wear has brought about several new technologies over the last century. When downhill skiing took off as a recreational sport in the early 1900s, women wore wool skirts and men wore riding breeches. In the 40s and 50s, it was common for people to wear garments made from wool or even tweed coats and hats tailored specifically for skiing. In the 1950s, with the onset of downhill ski races, the mountains attracted more people. During the 50s and 60s, skiers wore sweaters and wool coats and women wore thin leggings. Patterns included plaid, argyle and Icelandic prints. Hounds tooth was a popular print in the 70s, as were nylon suits and puffy jackets.
History (1980s-present)
*
Through the 80s and 90s, the mountains saw a lot of neon and full-piece suits, which soon went almost entirely out of style. A major change during these years was the introduction of GORE-TEX. In some western states it was not uncommon to see a man skiing in jeans and a cowboy hat in the early spring. Other water-resistant fabrics came into production in the 90s, and skiers started to grasp the idea of helmets, as well as layering with such things as fleece and synthetics like polypro. Ski wear designs continue to advance into better performing and modern styles.
Function
*
Ski wear is not only designed for peak performance but seemingly peak style as well. Ski wear such as waterproof/breathable shell jackets, which have a built-in powder skirt, pit zips, hood and sealed zippers, are what skiers typically wear over insulating and wicking layers. Materials such as GORE-TEX, Hy-vent and H2No are all commonly used on the slopes.
An Ideal Outfit
*
A general ski outfit consists of a specialized ski jacket and pants, wicking base layers, insulating mid layers for top and bottom, long ski socks, gloves or mitts and a hat and helmet with ski goggles. Brands such as Black Diamond, Mountain Hardwear, The North Face, Arc'Teryx and Spyder and Marmot, among others, continue to pave the way in ski wear design for the 21st century.
Features
*
The Arc'Teryx Titan snow sports jacket is made with a 2-layer GORE-TEX Pro Shell and laminated Primaloft Sport insulation. It models what the top designs of today intend to incorporate in ski jacket design with its construction, form, durability and protective qualities. Its hood fits a helmet, has hand pockets, pit zips, built-in neck gaiter and water-tight zippers. This jacket also exemplifies the top-of-the-line ski jacket of today in that it has a built in Recco reflector.
Potential
*
Built-in sensors and beacon technology such as the Recco reflector, combined with complete water-repellent and breathable fabrics, have brought the ski world farther into the back country than ever before. The Recco reflector is part of an avalanche rescue system. It weighs less than 4 grams and is permanently affixed to many ski jackets, requiring no maintenance. This raises the cost of a jacket but increases safety. Brands such as Sessions, Quicksilver, Arc'Teryx, The North Face and Vans Snow are some of the brands that now incorporate such technology into their ski wear.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* $10 Ski Rental Packagewww.banffbudgetrentals.com
The cheapest ski rental in Banff Reserve online now!
* winter ski dealswww.niseko-hirafu.com/ski
Great Niseko Ski Holiday Package. Get Fast Online Quote Now & Save.
* New, Affordable Beanieswww.zainihats.com/hats.html
Buy beanies from £15.99 here. New,Colourful+Affordable hats!
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Resources
* Recco Reflector
* Spyder Ski Wear
* Print
* Email
* Share
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About Spy Ski Goggles
*
Clothing to Wear While at a Ski Resort at Night
*
How to Wear Ski Poles
*
What to Wear When Girls Snowboard and Ski
*
How to Wear A Ski Lift Ticket
*
About Ski Helmets
*
Ski Clothing Tips
*
What Are Skis Made Of?
*
Choosing Clothes for Skiing
*
What Are Some Different Kinds of Skis?
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X
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Naomi Judd
Naomi Judd, CIG, has been a writer for six years and been published in Tidal Echoes, Centripetal, The Capital City Weekly and Northwest.com. She has a self-designed Bachelor of Arts degree in adventure writing from Plymouth State University and is currently earning an Master of Fine Arts in creative writing from University of Southern Maine.
By Naomi Judd, eHow Contributor
About Ski Wearthumbnail About Ski Wear
The history and diversity of ski wear is perhaps as colorful and spirited as the people who have careened down mountains wearing it, whether they be adorned in neon pink and green nylon or stealthy black GORE-TEX. Here is some background and history about ski wear.
1.
History (1900s-1970s)
How to Buy Ski Apparel
X
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Charlie Gaston
Charlie Gaston has written numerous instructional articles on topics ranging from business to communications and estate planning. Gaston holds a bachelor's degree in international business and a master's degree in communications. She is fluent in Spanish and has extensive travel experience.
By Charlie Gaston, eHow Contributor
How to Buy Ski Apparelthumbnail Ian Britton
Getting away to the snow capped mountains of the Alps or Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park is a great family adventure that requires little more than equipment and basic training. If you do not have experience skiing, don't worry. You and your family can still make the trip. Most ski resorts offer basic classes and free instruction for adults and children. You only have to worry about getting your equipment on the day or before. Here's what you need to know about purchasing ski apparel.
Difficulty:
Moderate
Instructions
1.
* 1
Start with a list of place to shop online. For example, consider a well known store like Sun and Ski Sports. With daily Internet sales and clearance items, you can purchase all your apparel needs in one place, including snow skis, ski clothing, ski boots, snow ski bindings, ski poles, snow ski helmets, Apres/After ski boots, ski goggles, ski bags, boot bags, and foot warmers. For questions contact the company at 1-866-786-3869. Alternately, consider a vendor like Troy Ski Apparel. Known for its large selection of Columbia ski apparel, Troy's has an extensive inventory of ski apparel that includes ski and snowboard jackets, pants, bibs, gloves, goggles, socks, long johns, and sunglasses. For more information, call Troy Ski Apparel at 1-806-748-7400.
* 2
Purchase an appropriate base layer and mid-layer. A good base layer will be a synthetic material that wicks away moisture, transferring it away your skin and on to the surrounding mid-layer. This will keep you warm and ward off illness. Supplement with a jacket to ward off moisture and provide insulation against cold temperatures.
* 3
Purchase a ski helmet based upon your own hat size.
* 4
Look for durability, fit, waterproof protection, breathability, and appropriateness of material. This is especially important when purchasing a ski jacket. The further away from the ground that you are, the greater the protection you will need. Consider a hard shell jacket for the strongest barrier to cold wind if you are going to be in high altitude.
* 5
Test out goggles before purchasing. Test for visibility, fit and lens features. Features will vary by product and vendor, but these generally include a padded interior to hold the goggles away from your face. They should have a flexible exterior, and they should have vents to protect against fogging.
* 6
Test glove options. Decide if you prefer mittens or gloves. Check out the insulation provided as well as the durability of the material. Test while handling equipment to decide if short or long gloves are best for you. Attempt to layer if possible with added insulation pads.
* 7
Fit snow sports pants to size. Most snow sports pants are made of a combination of synthetic and cotton materials to protect the body against moisture, sweat and cold winds. Consider extra padding and stronger stitching for added protection and durability.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
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* Big and Tall sizes to 14xwww.bigmen.com
dress, work, hunting and skiclothes Waists 32-88. Shoes-boots 6-20 6e.
* $10 Ski Rental Packagewww.banffbudgetrentals.com
The cheapest ski rental in Banff Reserve online now!
* Winter Park Ski Rentalwww.winterparkskirental.com
2 for 1 ski and snowboard rentals Pay only for the days used!
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Tips & Warnings
*
Always compare prices and review the manufacturer's refund policy.
*
This article is intended to function only as a guide to purchasing ski apparel.
Resources
* Where To Go Skiing
* Troy Ski Apparrel
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Related Articles & Videos
*
How to Buy Women's Ski Apparel
*
How to Buy Snow Pants
*
How to Buy Ski Bindings
*
How to Buy Kids Ski Apparel
*
Places in the U.S. That Resell Expensive Ski Wear
*
How to Buy a Water Ski Boat
*
Picking Ski Poles
*
Picking Ski Bindings
*
Ski Rental & Buying Tips
*
How to Snow Ski Backwards
More
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make eHow better for everyone.
* Why Not?
Too general / no useful information Information is out of date Information is inaccurate Article needs more photos Article is offensive Wasn't what I was looking for
Read more: How to Buy Ski Apparel | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_4674227_buy-ski-apparel.html#ixzz1IFWlhVMP
*
The evolution of ski wear has brought about several new technologies over the last century. When downhill skiing took off as a recreational sport in the early 1900s, women wore wool skirts and men wore riding breeches. In the 40s and 50s, it was common for people to wear garments made from wool or even tweed coats and hats tailored specifically for skiing. In the 1950s, with the onset of downhill ski races, the mountains attracted more people. During the 50s and 60s, skiers wore sweaters and wool coats and women wore thin leggings. Patterns included plaid, argyle and Icelandic prints. Hounds tooth was a popular print in the 70s, as were nylon suits and puffy jackets.
History (1980s-present)
*
Through the 80s and 90s, the mountains saw a lot of neon and full-piece suits, which soon went almost entirely out of style. A major change during these years was the introduction of GORE-TEX. In some western states it was not uncommon to see a man skiing in jeans and a cowboy hat in the early spring. Other water-resistant fabrics came into production in the 90s, and skiers started to grasp the idea of helmets, as well as layering with such things as fleece and synthetics like polypro. Ski wear designs continue to advance into better performing and modern styles.
Function
*
Ski wear is not only designed for peak performance but seemingly peak style as well. Ski wear such as waterproof/breathable shell jackets, which have a built-in powder skirt, pit zips, hood and sealed zippers, are what skiers typically wear over insulating and wicking layers. Materials such as GORE-TEX, Hy-vent and H2No are all commonly used on the slopes.
An Ideal Outfit
*
A general ski outfit consists of a specialized ski jacket and pants, wicking base layers, insulating mid layers for top and bottom, long ski socks, gloves or mitts and a hat and helmet with ski goggles. Brands such as Black Diamond, Mountain Hardwear, The North Face, Arc'Teryx and Spyder and Marmot, among others, continue to pave the way in ski wear design for the 21st century.
Features
*
The Arc'Teryx Titan snow sports jacket is made with a 2-layer GORE-TEX Pro Shell and laminated Primaloft Sport insulation. It models what the top designs of today intend to incorporate in ski jacket design with its construction, form, durability and protective qualities. Its hood fits a helmet, has hand pockets, pit zips, built-in neck gaiter and water-tight zippers. This jacket also exemplifies the top-of-the-line ski jacket of today in that it has a built in Recco reflector.
Potential
*
Built-in sensors and beacon technology such as the Recco reflector, combined with complete water-repellent and breathable fabrics, have brought the ski world farther into the back country than ever before. The Recco reflector is part of an avalanche rescue system. It weighs less than 4 grams and is permanently affixed to many ski jackets, requiring no maintenance. This raises the cost of a jacket but increases safety. Brands such as Sessions, Quicksilver, Arc'Teryx, The North Face and Vans Snow are some of the brands that now incorporate such technology into their ski wear.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* $10 Ski Rental Packagewww.banffbudgetrentals.com
The cheapest ski rental in Banff Reserve online now!
* winter ski dealswww.niseko-hirafu.com/ski
Great Niseko Ski Holiday Package. Get Fast Online Quote Now & Save.
* New, Affordable Beanieswww.zainihats.com/hats.html
Buy beanies from £15.99 here. New,Colourful+Affordable hats!
Ads by Google
Resources
* Recco Reflector
* Spyder Ski Wear
* Share
Read Next Article
Comments
* Share
Related Ads
* Skin
* Beautiful Skin Face
* Ski Wear Hats
* Skin Care Sensitive Skin
* Womens Ski Jackets
* Mens Ski Clothing
Related Articles & Videos
*
About Spy Ski Goggles
*
Clothing to Wear While at a Ski Resort at Night
*
How to Wear Ski Poles
*
What to Wear When Girls Snowboard and Ski
*
How to Wear A Ski Lift Ticket
*
About Ski Helmets
*
Ski Clothing Tips
*
What Are Skis Made Of?
*
Choosing Clothes for Skiing
*
What Are Some Different Kinds of Skis?
More
Helpful?
Yes
No
* Thanks for helping us to
make eHow better for everyone.
* Why Not?
Too general / no useful information Information is out of date Information is inaccurate Article needs more photos Article is offensive Wasn't what I was looking for
Read more: About Ski Wear | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_4704351_ski-wear.html#ixzz1IFW9pv7t
ds_naomij16253
Naomi Judd
Naomi Judd, CIG, has been a writer for six years and been published in Tidal Echoes, Centripetal, The Capital City Weekly and Northwest.com. She has a self-designed Bachelor of Arts degree in adventure writing from Plymouth State University and is currently earning an Master of Fine Arts in creative writing from University of Southern Maine.
By Naomi Judd, eHow Contributor
About Ski Wearthumbnail About Ski Wear
The history and diversity of ski wear is perhaps as colorful and spirited as the people who have careened down mountains wearing it, whether they be adorned in neon pink and green nylon or stealthy black GORE-TEX. Here is some background and history about ski wear.
1.
History (1900s-1970s)
*
The evolution of ski wear has brought about several new technologies over the last century. When downhill skiing took off as a recreational sport in the early 1900s, women wore wool skirts and men wore riding breeches. In the 40s and 50s, it was common for people to wear garments made from wool or even tweed coats and hats tailored specifically for skiing. In the 1950s, with the onset of downhill ski races, the mountains attracted more people. During the 50s and 60s, skiers wore sweaters and wool coats and women wore thin leggings. Patterns included plaid, argyle and Icelandic prints. Hounds tooth was a popular print in the 70s, as were nylon suits and puffy jackets.
History (1980s-present)
*
Through the 80s and 90s, the mountains saw a lot of neon and full-piece suits, which soon went almost entirely out of style. A major change during these years was the introduction of GORE-TEX. In some western states it was not uncommon to see a man skiing in jeans and a cowboy hat in the early spring. Other water-resistant fabrics came into production in the 90s, and skiers started to grasp the idea of helmets, as well as layering with such things as fleece and synthetics like polypro. Ski wear designs continue to advance into better performing and modern styles.
Function
*
Ski wear is not only designed for peak performance but seemingly peak style as well. Ski wear such as waterproof/breathable shell jackets, which have a built-in powder skirt, pit zips, hood and sealed zippers, are what skiers typically wear over insulating and wicking layers. Materials such as GORE-TEX, Hy-vent and H2No are all commonly used on the slopes.
An Ideal Outfit
*
A general ski outfit consists of a specialized ski jacket and pants, wicking base layers, insulating mid layers for top and bottom, long ski socks, gloves or mitts and a hat and helmet with ski goggles. Brands such as Black Diamond, Mountain Hardwear, The North Face, Arc'Teryx and Spyder and Marmot, among others, continue to pave the way in ski wear design for the 21st century.
Features
*
The Arc'Teryx Titan snow sports jacket is made with a 2-layer GORE-TEX Pro Shell and laminated Primaloft Sport insulation. It models what the top designs of today intend to incorporate in ski jacket design with its construction, form, durability and protective qualities. Its hood fits a helmet, has hand pockets, pit zips, built-in neck gaiter and water-tight zippers. This jacket also exemplifies the top-of-the-line ski jacket of today in that it has a built in Recco reflector.
Potential
*
Built-in sensors and beacon technology such as the Recco reflector, combined with complete water-repellent and breathable fabrics, have brought the ski world farther into the back country than ever before. The Recco reflector is part of an avalanche rescue system. It weighs less than 4 grams and is permanently affixed to many ski jackets, requiring no maintenance. This raises the cost of a jacket but increases safety. Brands such as Sessions, Quicksilver, Arc'Teryx, The North Face and Vans Snow are some of the brands that now incorporate such technology into their ski wear.
* Melanoma Treatmentswww.CancerCenter.com
Chat w/a Cancer Info Expert About Melanoma Treatment Options.
* $10 Ski Rental Packagewww.banffbudgetrentals.com
The cheapest ski rental in Banff Reserve online now!
* winter ski dealswww.niseko-hirafu.com/ski
Great Niseko Ski Holiday Package. Get Fast Online Quote Now & Save.
* New, Affordable Beanieswww.zainihats.com/hats.html
Buy beanies from £15.99 here. New,Colourful+Affordable hats!
Ads by Google
Resources
* Recco Reflector
* Spyder Ski Wear
* Share
Read Next Article
Comments
* Share
Related Ads
* Skin
* Beautiful Skin Face
* Ski Wear Hats
* Skin Care Sensitive Skin
* Womens Ski Jackets
* Mens Ski Clothing
Related Articles & Videos
*
About Spy Ski Goggles
*
Clothing to Wear While at a Ski Resort at Night
*
How to Wear Ski Poles
*
What to Wear When Girls Snowboard and Ski
*
How to Wear A Ski Lift Ticket
*
About Ski Helmets
*
Ski Clothing Tips
*
What Are Skis Made Of?
*
Choosing Clothes for Skiing
*
What Are Some Different Kinds of Skis?
More
Helpful?
Yes
No
* Thanks for helping us to
make eHow better for everyone.
* Why Not?
Too general / no useful information Information is out of date Information is inaccurate Article needs more photos Article is offensive Wasn't what I was looking for
Read more: About Ski Wear | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_4704351_ski-wear.html#ixzz1IFW9pv7t
Art
art
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the general concept of Art. For the categories of different artistic disciplines, see The arts. For the arts that are visual in nature, see Visual arts. For people named Art, see Arthur (disambiguation). For other uses, see Art (disambiguation).
Clockwise from upper left: A self-portrait from Vincent van Gogh, an African Chokwe-statue, detail from the Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli and a Japanese Shisa lion.
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items (often with symbolic significance) in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music, literature, film, photography, sculpture, and paintings. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics, and even disciplines such as history and psychology analyze its relationship with humans and generations.
Traditionally, the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery. This conception changed during the Romantic period, when art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science".[1] Generally, art is made with the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Evaluation
o 1.1 Definition
* 2 History
* 3 Characteristics
* 4 Forms, genres, media, and styles
o 4.1 Skill and craft
o 4.2 Value judgment
* 5 Purpose of art
o 5.1 Non-motivated functions of art
o 5.2 Motivated functions of art
* 6 Controversial art
* 7 Art theories
* 8 Classification disputes
* 9 Art, class, and value
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 Bibliography
* 13 Further reading
* 14 External links
Evaluation
Mozarabic Beatus miniature; Spain, late 10th century.
Philosopher Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[2] An object may be characterized by the intentions, or lack thereof, of its creator, regardless of its apparent purpose. A cup, which ostensibly can be used as a container, may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament, while a painting may be deemed craft if mass-produced.
The nature of art has been described by Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture".[3] It has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another.[4] Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator.[5][6] The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. Art as mimesis or representation has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle.[4] More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.[7]
Definition
Works of art worldwide can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of Along the River During the Qingming Festival, an 18th-century reproduction of the 12th-century original by Zhang Zeduan
Britannica Online defines art as "the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others." By this definition of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept to modern Western societies.[8] Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist."[9] The first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft." A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.
20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.
The second and more recent sense of the word art is as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Fine art means that a skill is being used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it will be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference.[10] However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.
Art can describe several things: a study of creative skill, a process of using the creative skill, a product of the creative skill, or the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (arts) that produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and echo or reflect a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Artworks can be defined by purposeful, creative interpretations of limitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person. Artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. It is also an expression of an idea and it can take many different forms and serve many different purposes. Although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the "creation" of something new, this represents science only and is not categorized as art.
History
Main article: History of art
Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP.
Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings, and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.[11]
Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, c. 16,000 BP.
Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.
In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of Biblical and nonmaterial truths, and used styles that showed the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.
Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.
The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious.
In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang Dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.
Painting by Song Dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24,8 × 25,2 cm.
The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.
The history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by African sculpture. Japanese woodblock prints (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, the west has had huge impacts on Eastern art in the 19th and 20th centuries, with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence on artistic styles.
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with irony. Furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than regional cultures.
Characteristics
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Art tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding, and is usually consciously created with this intention.[citation needed] Fine art intentionally serves no other purpose.[dubious – discuss] As a result of this impetus, works of art are elusive, refractive to attempts at classification, because they can be appreciated in more than one way, and are often susceptible to many different interpretations. In the case of Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, special knowledge concerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Géricault's political intentions in the piece. Even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object, may invite reflection upon elevated themes.
Traditionally, the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium. This characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense. Art has a transformative capacity: it confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures or forms upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.
Forms, genres, media, and styles
Main article: The arts
Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, showing the painting technique of sfumato.
The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, each related to its technique, or medium, such as decorative arts, plastic arts, performing arts, or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of the few subjects that are academically organized according to technique [1]. An artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic work is made from, and may also refer to the technique used. For example, paint is a medium used in painting, and paper is a medium used in drawing.
An art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expression takes. The media used often influence the form. For example, the form of a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions, and respond to gravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its formal qualities. To give another example, the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture. The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and virtual presence. The form of a particular work of art is determined by the formal qualities of the media, and is not related to the intentions of the artist or the reactions of the audience in any way what so ever.
A genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium. For instance, well recognized genres in film are western, horror and romantic comedy. Genres in music include death metal and trip hop. Genres in painting include still life and pastoral landscape. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions, clichés and tropes. (One note: the word genre has a second older meaning within painting; genre painting was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and can still be used in this way.)
The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai (Japanese, 1760–1849), colored woodcut print.
The style of an artwork, artist, or movement is the distinctive method and form followed by the respective art. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstract painting is called expressionistic. Often a style is linked with a particular historical period, set of ideas, and particular artistic movement. So Jackson Pollock is called an Abstract Expressionist.
Because a particular style may have specific cultural meanings, it is important to be sensitive to differences in technique. Roy Lichtenstein's (1923–1997) paintings are not pointillist, despite his uses of dots, because they are not aligned with the original proponents of Pointillism. Lichtenstein used Ben-Day dots: they are evenly spaced and create flat areas of color. Dots of this type, used in halftone printing, were originally used in comic strips and newspapers to reproduce color. Lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the "high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics - to comment on class distinctions in culture. Lichtenstein is thus associated with the American Pop art movement (1960s). Pointillism is a technique in late Impressionism (1880s), developed especially by the artist Georges Seurat, that employs dots that are spaced in a way to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to paint images that were closer to the way people really see color. Both artists use dots, but the particular style and technique relate to the artistic movement adopted by each artist.
These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art, to narrow it down. "Imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks. How would you proceed with your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video, or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomes something different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything else about the artwork remains the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns and compositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders.
Value judgment
Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.
This section may stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article, Art_(disambiguation). Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (November 2010)
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception", (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.
Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist.
Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human.[14]
Purpose of art
A Navajo rug made c. 1880.
Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Levi-Strauss).
Non-motivated functions of art
The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. Aristotle said, "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature." [15] In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.
1. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.
"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry." -Aristotle [16]
2. Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science." -Albert Einstein [17]
3. Expression of the imagination. Art provide a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are maleable.
"Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else - something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant[18]
4. Universal communication. Art allows the individual to express things toward the world as a whole.[according to whom?] Earth artists often create art in remote locations that will never be experienced by another person. The practice of placing a cairn, or pile of stones at the top of a mountain, is an example. (Note: This need not suggest a particular view of God, or religion.) Art created in this way is a form of communication between the individual and the world as a whole.[citation needed]
5. Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.
"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova[19]
Motivated functions of art
Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) to sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.
1. Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.
"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -Steve Mithen[20]
2. Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.
3. The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian Constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avante-garde arts.
"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life." -André Breton (Surrealism)[21]
4. Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
5. Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.
Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome.
Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
6. Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.[22]
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.
Controversial art
Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820
Further information: Art and politics
Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was a social commentary on a current event, unprecedented at the time. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a huge uproar over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.
In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.
Art theories
In the nineteenth century, artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.[23]
The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[24]
The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art,[25] and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself".[26] Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:
Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of
painting – the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment — were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[26]
After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.
Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.
Classification disputes
Main article: Classificatory disputes about art
Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art.
Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.[27]
Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work.[28] In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."[29][30]
Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art;[31] it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I,[31] when he was making art from found objects.[31] One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art.[31] Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[32] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists,[31] though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,[31] who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.[33][34]
Art, class, and value
Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.
Art has been perceived by some as belonging to some social classes and often excluding others. In this context, art is seen as an upper-class activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. For example, the palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St. Petersburg with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, or of governments and institutions.
Fine and expensive goods have been popular markers of status in many cultures, and they continue to be so today. There has been a cultural push in the other direction since at least 1793, when the Louvre, which had been a private palace of the Kings of France, was opened to the public as an art museum during the French Revolution. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.
Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978 : Everyone an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism.
There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects"[35] said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."[36]
In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,[37] invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."[38]
See also
Book: Art
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This article is about the general concept of Art. For the categories of different artistic disciplines, see The arts. For the arts that are visual in nature, see Visual arts. For people named Art, see Arthur (disambiguation). For other uses, see Art (disambiguation).
Clockwise from upper left: A self-portrait from Vincent van Gogh, an African Chokwe-statue, detail from the Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli and a Japanese Shisa lion.
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items (often with symbolic significance) in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music, literature, film, photography, sculpture, and paintings. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics, and even disciplines such as history and psychology analyze its relationship with humans and generations.
Traditionally, the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery. This conception changed during the Romantic period, when art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science".[1] Generally, art is made with the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Evaluation
o 1.1 Definition
* 2 History
* 3 Characteristics
* 4 Forms, genres, media, and styles
o 4.1 Skill and craft
o 4.2 Value judgment
* 5 Purpose of art
o 5.1 Non-motivated functions of art
o 5.2 Motivated functions of art
* 6 Controversial art
* 7 Art theories
* 8 Classification disputes
* 9 Art, class, and value
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 Bibliography
* 13 Further reading
* 14 External links
Evaluation
Mozarabic Beatus miniature; Spain, late 10th century.
Philosopher Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[2] An object may be characterized by the intentions, or lack thereof, of its creator, regardless of its apparent purpose. A cup, which ostensibly can be used as a container, may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament, while a painting may be deemed craft if mass-produced.
The nature of art has been described by Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture".[3] It has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another.[4] Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator.[5][6] The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. Art as mimesis or representation has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle.[4] More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.[7]
Definition
Works of art worldwide can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of Along the River During the Qingming Festival, an 18th-century reproduction of the 12th-century original by Zhang Zeduan
Britannica Online defines art as "the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others." By this definition of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept to modern Western societies.[8] Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist."[9] The first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft." A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.
20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.
The second and more recent sense of the word art is as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Fine art means that a skill is being used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it will be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference.[10] However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.
Art can describe several things: a study of creative skill, a process of using the creative skill, a product of the creative skill, or the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (arts) that produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and echo or reflect a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Artworks can be defined by purposeful, creative interpretations of limitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person. Artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. It is also an expression of an idea and it can take many different forms and serve many different purposes. Although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the "creation" of something new, this represents science only and is not categorized as art.
History
Main article: History of art
Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP.
Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings, and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.[11]
Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, c. 16,000 BP.
Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.
In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of Biblical and nonmaterial truths, and used styles that showed the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.
Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.
The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious.
In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang Dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.
Painting by Song Dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24,8 × 25,2 cm.
The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.
The history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by African sculpture. Japanese woodblock prints (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, the west has had huge impacts on Eastern art in the 19th and 20th centuries, with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence on artistic styles.
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with irony. Furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than regional cultures.
Characteristics
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Art tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding, and is usually consciously created with this intention.[citation needed] Fine art intentionally serves no other purpose.[dubious – discuss] As a result of this impetus, works of art are elusive, refractive to attempts at classification, because they can be appreciated in more than one way, and are often susceptible to many different interpretations. In the case of Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, special knowledge concerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Géricault's political intentions in the piece. Even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object, may invite reflection upon elevated themes.
Traditionally, the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium. This characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense. Art has a transformative capacity: it confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures or forms upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.
Forms, genres, media, and styles
Main article: The arts
Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, showing the painting technique of sfumato.
The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, each related to its technique, or medium, such as decorative arts, plastic arts, performing arts, or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of the few subjects that are academically organized according to technique [1]. An artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic work is made from, and may also refer to the technique used. For example, paint is a medium used in painting, and paper is a medium used in drawing.
An art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expression takes. The media used often influence the form. For example, the form of a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions, and respond to gravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its formal qualities. To give another example, the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture. The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and virtual presence. The form of a particular work of art is determined by the formal qualities of the media, and is not related to the intentions of the artist or the reactions of the audience in any way what so ever.
A genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium. For instance, well recognized genres in film are western, horror and romantic comedy. Genres in music include death metal and trip hop. Genres in painting include still life and pastoral landscape. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions, clichés and tropes. (One note: the word genre has a second older meaning within painting; genre painting was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and can still be used in this way.)
The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai (Japanese, 1760–1849), colored woodcut print.
The style of an artwork, artist, or movement is the distinctive method and form followed by the respective art. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstract painting is called expressionistic. Often a style is linked with a particular historical period, set of ideas, and particular artistic movement. So Jackson Pollock is called an Abstract Expressionist.
Because a particular style may have specific cultural meanings, it is important to be sensitive to differences in technique. Roy Lichtenstein's (1923–1997) paintings are not pointillist, despite his uses of dots, because they are not aligned with the original proponents of Pointillism. Lichtenstein used Ben-Day dots: they are evenly spaced and create flat areas of color. Dots of this type, used in halftone printing, were originally used in comic strips and newspapers to reproduce color. Lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the "high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics - to comment on class distinctions in culture. Lichtenstein is thus associated with the American Pop art movement (1960s). Pointillism is a technique in late Impressionism (1880s), developed especially by the artist Georges Seurat, that employs dots that are spaced in a way to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to paint images that were closer to the way people really see color. Both artists use dots, but the particular style and technique relate to the artistic movement adopted by each artist.
These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art, to narrow it down. "Imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks. How would you proceed with your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video, or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomes something different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything else about the artwork remains the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns and compositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders.
Value judgment
Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.
This section may stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article, Art_(disambiguation). Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (November 2010)
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception", (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.
Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist.
Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human.[14]
Purpose of art
A Navajo rug made c. 1880.
Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Levi-Strauss).
Non-motivated functions of art
The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. Aristotle said, "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature." [15] In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.
1. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.
"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry." -Aristotle [16]
2. Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science." -Albert Einstein [17]
3. Expression of the imagination. Art provide a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are maleable.
"Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else - something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant[18]
4. Universal communication. Art allows the individual to express things toward the world as a whole.[according to whom?] Earth artists often create art in remote locations that will never be experienced by another person. The practice of placing a cairn, or pile of stones at the top of a mountain, is an example. (Note: This need not suggest a particular view of God, or religion.) Art created in this way is a form of communication between the individual and the world as a whole.[citation needed]
5. Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.
"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova[19]
Motivated functions of art
Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) to sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.
1. Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.
"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -Steve Mithen[20]
2. Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.
3. The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian Constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avante-garde arts.
"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life." -André Breton (Surrealism)[21]
4. Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
5. Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.
Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome.
Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
6. Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.[22]
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.
Controversial art
Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820
Further information: Art and politics
Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was a social commentary on a current event, unprecedented at the time. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a huge uproar over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.
In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.
Art theories
In the nineteenth century, artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.[23]
The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[24]
The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art,[25] and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself".[26] Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:
Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of
painting – the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment — were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[26]
After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.
Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.
Classification disputes
Main article: Classificatory disputes about art
Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art.
Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.[27]
Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work.[28] In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."[29][30]
Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art;[31] it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I,[31] when he was making art from found objects.[31] One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art.[31] Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[32] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists,[31] though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,[31] who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.[33][34]
Art, class, and value
Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.
Art has been perceived by some as belonging to some social classes and often excluding others. In this context, art is seen as an upper-class activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. For example, the palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St. Petersburg with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, or of governments and institutions.
Fine and expensive goods have been popular markers of status in many cultures, and they continue to be so today. There has been a cultural push in the other direction since at least 1793, when the Louvre, which had been a private palace of the Kings of France, was opened to the public as an art museum during the French Revolution. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.
Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978 : Everyone an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism.
There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects"[35] said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."[36]
In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,[37] invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."[38]
See also
Book: Art
Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.
WPVA-khamsa.png Visual arts portal
* Art movement
* Artist in residence
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* Outline of the visual arts
"[12]
Shahrukh Khan Biography
Shahrukh Khan Two decades in the Indian entertainment industry, has seen him from a television actor to a Bollywood superstar and producer. When he stepped back into television again in 2007, it was as the host to Kaun Banega Crorepati, one of the most popular TV shows of all times. Throw in several awards of recognition and his unquestioned popularity and there you have it – Shah Rukh Khan, the stuff legends are made of and then some.
Beginnings
Shah Rukh Khan was born in Delhi on Nov 2 1965, to Taj Mohammed Khan, a freedom fighter from Peshawar and Lateefa Mohammed, from Rawalpindi, who was the adopted daughter of Major General Shah Nawaz Khan of the Janjua Rajput clan, who served as a General in the Indian National Army of Subash Chandra Bose. His father and mother moved to India before the Partition. Khan has an older sister Shehnaz, fondly known as LalaRukh.
Khan did his schooling at St.Columbus where he excelled in academics, sports and drama. While here he won the Sword of Honor, a recognition given to students who embodied the spirit of the school. He went on to acquire an Honors degree in Economics from the Hansraj College. He also started out to obtain a Masters degree in Mass Communications from Jamia Millia Islamia, before looking the Bollywood way.
He moved to Mumbai in 1991 after the death of his parents. He married Gauri Khan, a Hindu, and they have two children Aryan and Suhana and live in a palatial home called Mannat in Bandra, Mumbai.
Journey
Khan’s debut as an actor was in 1988, in a TV serial called Fauji, about life in the Indian Army, where he played the role of Commander Abhimanyu Rai. He appeared in another serial called Circus, about performers in a circus, in 1989. He also played a small part in a TV film written by Arundhati Roy called In which Annie gives it to those ones.
His debut into Bollywood was with Deewana, in 1992, which was an instant hit. His performance stood out despite sharing screen space with accomplished actors like Rishi Kapoor and Divya Bharati. He went on to win the Best Debut category of the Filmfare Awards, a beginning of many more to come.
Deewana was followed by Maya Memsaab which created some amount of controversy over ‘explicit’ scenes. In 1993 he came out with two movies both of which were successful and in both movies he portrayed negative characters, which most top actors at that time considered risqué. In Darr he played the role of an obsessive man who stalks and terrorizes a woman he loves. In Baazigar, where he was cast as a murderer motivated by revenge, won him the Filmfare Best Actor Award. He won the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance for his role as young musician in Kabhie Haan Kabhie Naan.
In 1994, we saw him winning the Filmfare Best Villain Award for Anjaam where he once again played a negative role. In 1995, he played the part of Raj in one of the biggest blockbusters of Hindi cinema, which is still running in Mumbai theaters, Aditya Chopra’s Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge. He took home another Filmfare Best Actor Award. He didn’t see a lot of successes in 1996. However, it took a turn for the better in 1997, when Dil To Pagal Hai released, a movie about a love triangle between three dancers, and he walked away, yet again, with the Filmfare Best Actor Award. The same year he was also nominated for Yes Boss. Karan Johar’s directorial debut Kuch Kuch Hota Hai in 1998 received a huge audience response and won Khan another Filmfare Best Actor Award. His performance in Mani Rathnam’s Dil Se, which revolved around terrorism, was also critically acclaimed.
At the turn of the century, he saw successful releases in Mohabbatein, where he worked alongside Amitabh Bacchan and Josh with Aishwarya Rai. He won the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance for Mohabbatein. He, along with Juhi Chawla, started their production company Dreamz Unlimited and produced and starred in Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani, which didn’t fare very well. The epic movie Asoka, where he played the Emperor Asoka and the multi-starrer Kabhie Khushi Kabhie Gham, made their mark in 2001. He was cast as the tragic lover Devdas, in Sanjay Leela Bhansali’s remake of the award winning Devdas, in 2002. It won him the Filmfare Best Actor Award. In 2003, he received nominations for his performance in Kal Ho Na Ho and his production house saw it’s first success in Chalte Chalte.
His second production house, Red Chillies Entertainment, saw light in 2004 and it’s first release Farah Khan’s debut Main Hoon Na, was one of the biggest successes of the year, alongside his other movie the same year, Veer-Zaara. He walked away with the Filmfare Best Actor Award for his role in Swades though the movie created hardly any ripples in the box-office. Another big release from Red Chillies Entertainment in 2005 was Paheli in which he played a ghost. It was India’s entry to the Oscars. A documentary on Khan titled The Inner and Outer World of Shah Rukh Khan was produced by Nasreen Munni Kabir in 2005. Another multi-starrer directed by Karan Johar in 2006 was Kabhie Alvida Na Kehna that made a splash in India and overseas. He also starred in the remake of the seventies hit Don. The Filmfare Best Actor Award landed in his hand yet again in 2007 for his role as Kabir Khan in Chak De India where he is the tough coach for the girls’ hockey team. His performance in Farah Khan’s Om Shanthi Om also won him nominations.
Khan was back again on the small screen, after KBC, in 2008 as the host of Kya Aap Paanchvi Pass Se Tez Hain?, which is the desi version of Are you smarter than a fifth grader? There are more movies lined up to release in the later part of 2008 and 2009, like Billo Barber and My Name Is Khan, as he shows no signs of slowing down.
Other worthy achievements
Khan is one of the Bollywood actors whose life size wax statue was created and displayed at Madame Tussaud’s Museum in London. He has been honored with the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Order of the Arts and Literature) award by the French government in recognition for the mark he has made in the industry.
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